Block printing came to Europe of christianity as a method for printing the cloth which is common by 1300. Image explain becomes intended the cloth because of religion to be large and can hugely and in detail in order and to be able to utilize the paper, when relative becoming easy, approximately 1400, the tramp which is printed with medium and the paper which very directly moved to the religion image in the small wood block it printed. These printed matter from approximately 1425 at very large number were created before. The paper is handled or in the Chinese ヨセフ Needham science and capacity of civilization which is printed as for "only the European block printer Chinese sample you did not see it is different, but these United Nations European methods from the Chinese printer between the Chinese residence which was taught perhaps and proposes", "China but the empty only of European printing which is transmitted evidence counterevidence". [ scarcity of 2 ] being in addition as for him, it approved necessary for the printing process which is the paper itself learned but as for this with the other people or the missionary who come to Europe from China by the trade with the Arabian chapter Certain. The historian recognizes the paper coming from China whose printing probably is impossible completely, but, there is a direct evidence whose influence of printing the technology from Asia and influence of technology of European printing are less. [ 3 ] Movement possible printing type printing first was invented to 1041 by Chinese Bi シェング. シェング was broken easily, the rotary table of the Chinese character where, but Wang Zhen carved the type of endurance from wood afterwards with the announcement 1298, united to a more effective printing type, made the fact that it prints and is written and type of clay which developed the complex system of several combinations were used. Transfer to type of metal from type of wood product to happen however the text of the quickest continuance is from 1377, Choe Yun-ui (? ? ? ). That in Korea where type of portable possible metal to record has been attached to the book 1234 it shows between the royal court of Korean Goryeo it was printed, it is believed. With the Chinese metal movement possible type was not developed to bloom Sui work of the printer of announcement 1490. However movement possible type is used widely in wooden both China, covers the metal on the type which prints, when relative being recent, the printer of the European type which is introduced into China increased efficiency and speed of printing very. Passing by the Arabic world, passing by the channels of trade, perhaps the technology of east Asian printing whether the India from China perhaps it spreads to Europe. There is no actual evidence perhaps Gutenberg has known the Korean process for typing which is movement possible. However, the author of some person this possibility, to approve [ 4 ], type of portable possible metal was the be active enterprise of Korea ever since 1234, communication and east it was between west, you dispute. 1439 [ the around 5 of Mainz ] and exactly spans ten Johannes Gutenberg of technical German of European printing which was developed city started, conventional age of printing, but new research is thought that it was expanded by a more complicated development process unless perhaps, the multiple locations which is ended [ 6 ] it shows the fact that is, traditionally. In addition, Guttenburg of Mainz it experimented Johann Fust and Peter Sch5offer. To, today portable possible printing type everything printing single source, can trace to the printer of Gutenberg which is obtained from the design of the publication of the agriculture where he is known long. To be used with at last thing for the difficult manual friction which it prints and has been based, movement possible type of east Asian style, after the introduction of the European style which prints practically in 15th century dying. In addition as for Gutenberg before being, introduction of the durable oil-based ink it is believed from the water-based ink which is used. Gutenberg, that it works, him it did the use to which knowledge of the metal which learns as the craftsman becomes skillful as a special gold workmanship person. Gutenberg in order to create the type of lead, tin, and endurance serious thing the book where the good quality which was created is printed, and, from the wood of the clay which is used in east Asia or type of bronze color is suited for printing, being proven, and 1st it does that type from the alloy of the antimony which is. In order to draw up the type of these lead, as for Gutenberg certain people as that most original invention those which are considered, of of precision which does not have front example with casting ones of the movement possible type newly wherewith of the special matrix which had become feasibility you used with urgent notification. In addition within year after that B42, as for Gutenberg the printed matter which first colors was published. Invention of the printer of Gutenberg to revolution converted the production of communication and the book which bring the extent of knowledge. Quickly, with the German printer of immigration, but and printing which the apprentice of the foreign country which is returned to the house expands from Germany. The printer in 1469 was made in Venice, was a printer of 417 in the city depending upon 1500. Heynlin set up the Paris printer with Johann 1470. Straube published annum 1474 of the announcement of cracoviense of Almanach of Krak3ow with Kasper 1473. The ten of Dirk Aalst (franc dozen) set up the printer in 1473. He 1476 printed the book the printer concerning 2 sweethearts of Enea Piccolomini which becomes Pius II.In in the legal emperor who is set up in England by William Caxton. Belarusian Francysk Skaryna on 1517 August 6th printed the first book in the language of Slavic. The Italian fan Pablos set up the publication where Mexican city is imported in 1539. The publication of southeast Asian first printing in 1593 was set up in the Philippines by the Spanish. スティーブン day to be being able to help the establishment of 1st Cambridge Press. which, in 1638 in the Massachusetts bay makes the printer in north America. The quick printing house (at the time of Gutenberg being) moved soon "due to the master printer. The manuscript where operation of the printed matter where "these printers owned the store, chose, and created and worked were sold is decided size was compiled, the importance, the distribution which is tidied was increased. The printing house of a certain master was cultural center for the intellectual class like Erasmus. The printed matter store does in the apprentice: The apprentice between age of 15 and 20 worked, because of the usual master printer. The apprentice was not required that there is a study, and reading and writing ability that time by comparison with today very was low, you appraise. The apprentice prepared the ink, dampens the paper, and helped in the publication. When you wanted to learn the fact that it becomes compositor the apprentice learned Latin, must use time under supervision of the craftsman. As for work in order to make more and more special has become printing, relation you attached to the 16th century. The structure which supports the publisher more and it is more complicated, it leads to this division of work. Role of the master printer the empty dying, the bookstore publisher difficult had slipped in 1500 and Europe between 1700. There was the commercial order which is strong in printing between this period with before. But enterprise and relation the danger of being attached depended on the character of the publication, but it was suitable. The publication book of the divided subscription was put out until the complete book was put out to part. This did not make the fixed time limit always. That was the effective method of expanding the cost which covers fixed period. In addition as for that the return whose investment to help cover production cost of the divided subscription which follows to that is quicker was made possible. When it is the majority, the publisher bought the copyright of work from the author, concerning the possible profit rearranged. This required the suitable quantity of the capital city the physical device and for the staff in addition to the capital city. Furthermore instead, occasionally the sufficient, copyright him himself whom the gold maintains the author who is, the printer of production of the book simply the payment. Concerning the development above that, if you look at the ink jet of principal article:copyright which is normally used for printing the small-numbered book or packing and the various materials from the paper of the good quality imitate offset printing, in order to print in order to lay the floor on the tile; Direct delivery to flight applying the address of mail to the part and technology of the intaglio process which has consisted of the dent whose image the surface of printing edition is small because printing the gravure where the ink jet is used is printed. Being full with the ink, super undeserved can rub the cell from the surface separated, and the rubber the roller which is covered edition and pushes the paper on the surface to the contact to which the ink of the cell has been attached. Perhaps whether digital 彫 edition you can do printing edition usually from the copper, you are created by etching the laser. Cost of capital equipment, repayment, and so on with similar, the seller puts emphasis on sum total normally in order to operate the device which includes the complicated calculation which includes cost primary factor everything which relates to operation. Generally, as for the toner system although the ink jet is higher little at first purchase price the ink jet is struck after all. (The toner using special digital printing for moving the toner or liquid ink in the substrate which is printed) charge is used mainly. Quality of digital print quick color and to be black and Xerox iGen3, like the digital publication series of the indigo of Kodak Nexpress and HP improved to the digital publication of the color which is refined steadily from the copier of white. IGen3 and Nexpress use the toner particle, the indigo uses the liquid ink. You can do 3 everything operation and the variable data, and in order of the competitor who is offset with quality to be small. The publication of the digital offset is called the direct image projection publication; These receive the computer file, turn to the edition which can do printing preparation automatically, but it is not possible to insert the variable data. Printing the graphics of production of the realistic printed matter is attached following to the production service and condition of the printed matter, competitive quotation phrase, the printed matter and supply service of the supply which the lithography and digitally it prints offers and relation so mainly. All companies of printing offer the complete solution. There is a stage which differs, the step which relates to the production of the realistic printed matter usually is these 4 stages, eight steps include with production of printing.
In a series of hills or mountains in particular, a pass (even shelved notch, pass, saddle, bwlch, brennig or bealach) is a point that allows weaker easier access by means of a fan. On the route through the range, it is the highest point at the local level on the road. Like many mountain in the world have always presented formidable barriers to movement, passes were recorded before important insofar history, and played a key role in trade, war and migration. Topographic, a pass at the general shape of a saddle between two mountains (the altitude and position of two coordinates is mathematically a saddle point). They are often found just above the source of a river as a kind of "bridge" to the source of another river. Passes may be very short, consisting of steep slopes to the summit of the pass, or the valleys many miles, culminating in the only identifiable by a poll. The summit of a hill is often the only flat land in the area, a high point of view, it is often a preferred site for the buildings. For countries whose borders are demarcated by a mountain range, the pass is typically part of the border, and facilities that might include a border control or customs station, and possibly a military post as well. Cols with roads, it is also customary to have a small roadside sign indicating the name of the card and its elevation above sea level. There are thousands of named happening in the world, and some of them are familiar names, such as the Col du Grand St. Bernard (2473 m) in the Alps, the Khyber Pass (1027 m) between Afghanistan and Pakistan and the Khardung La (5359 m) in Jammu and Kashmir, India. In the Lake District of northwest England, hause term is often used, although the term is also current flows. A distinction is a pass which can refer to a road, as well as the highest part of it, while a hause is simply that the highest part, often somewhat flattened in a high plateau level. In most cases, the formal term will be the one that was used locally over a long period. As to allow easier access between two valleys, a pass along also provides for the relationship between two mountain tops, with a minimum of descent, which is also important for hikers. Because of these advantages, it is common for tracks to meet a pass, which makes them often convenient routes even when travelling between the top and the valley.
A school or hostel is usually a fee-charging school, where some or all students not only study but also live during the period, with their classmates and teachers. The word "boarding" in this sense means, the accommodation and meals. Many public schools in the Commonwealth of Nations (the so-called private schools or schools in the United States) are boarding schools. The amount of time spent in a boarding school varies considerably from one year to twelve or more years. May Boarding students spend the majority of their childhood and adolescence, living away from their parents, even though the students to return home during the holidays and, often, the summer break. In the United States, schools generally include classes seven to twelve years, with most of the high school year. Most schools also have students, the days are the residents of the municipality or children of the faculty. Some schools in the United States with military training. A typical modern school fee has several separate residential houses, and in several streets near the school. The students generally need permission to be outside the school boundaries can be defined, may venture further at certain times. A number of senior teachers are appointed housemasters, housemistresses residential or consultants of which everyone takes quasi-parental responsibility for the approximately 50 students residing in her house at all times, but especially outside of school hours. Anyone can in the domestic administration of the house through a Haushälterin often as house mother, and a house tutor for academic affairs, often the employees of each sex. Nevertheless, older students are often left unattended by staff, and a system of monitors or prefects offers only a limited authority senior pupils. Houses easily develop distinctive characters, and a healthy rivalry between the houses is often in sports should be encouraged. See also house system. British schools have three words a year, approximately twelve weeks each with a few half-days holiday period, in which students are expected to go home to. It can exeats several weekends or in each half of the term, when the students go home or May. Boarding students today often go to school within easy traveling distance from home, and so often see their families. Daily and weekly newspapers student boarders May, have a clear view of day school, in comparison to most other children, the school day without schools. These students relate to a boarding school life, even if they are not entirely live in the school, but they can not be fully part of the school. On the other hand, these students have a different view of schools as compared to full term boarders who go home less frequently only at the end of the term, or even the end of an academic year. A minimum area for each student with respect to his / her residential homes, cabins and bedrooms, is mandatory. This is done by multiplying the number of students in the dormitory sleeping bag of 4.2 sqm, and then adding 1.6 m² on the outcome. A minimum distance of 0.9 m should also be maintained between two beds in a dormitory, sleeping in cabins. In case students are provided with a cabin, then every student with a window and an area of 5.0 sq metres at least. A room for a single student should be at least an area of 6.0 square metres. Boarding schools have a total area of at least 2.3 m living area for each boarder. This should also be involved with at least one bath or shower for every ten students. These are just some of the few guidelines adopted by the department, among many others. It was observed that probably not all schools around the world meet this basic minimum standards, despite its apparent attractiveness. Boarding schools in England before the medieval times when boys were educated in a convent or noble household, where a lonely priests read and write could be found. In the twelfth century, the pope ordered all Benedictine monasteries like Westminster to charity schools and public schools if such schools attracted students pay. These public schools reflect the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as in many respects they still do, and were staffed by priests according to the nineteenth century. Private lessons at home remained the norm for the aristocratic families, but by the sixteenth century, it was always accepted that young people of any rank perhaps best trained together. The institution has to be this way to the changing social circumstances more than a thousand years. Preparatory boarding schools tend to public schools, which they feed (they often have a more or less formal ties to certain schools). Although still useful in modern times, in many cases, as with Globetrotter parents, difficult family circumstances, or broken homes, they have been out of fashion. The classic British boarding school was very popular during the colonial expansion of the British Empire. Administrators British colonial abroad could ensure that their children were educated in the British culture in public schools at home in Britain and the local rulers were the same for their sons. More junior expatriates would send their children to local schools-British, as they also admit selected local children, arising from the travel considerable distances. The schools inculcating their own values, an effective system with which the locals to deculturize from their local culture and local people develop the stock British ideals, and so help to the British imperial achievement of its objectives. One of the reasons for sending children to boarding schools is the development of broader horizon than their family can provide. A boarding school, a family has to generations can aspire to the culture, the parents for their children; equally by running a fashionable school, parents want their children better by mixing in equal conditions with the children of the upper classes. But many reasons, sometimes politely, while hiding or implicitly underlying reasons for sending a child away from home. (N Duffel, 2000; Schaverien, J. 2004;). This includes children who are too disobedient, underachieving children from families who divorced spouses and children, with whom the mother or the parents are not much. (N Duffel, 2000; Schaverien, J. 2004;) For these reasons, but never explicitly mentioned, but the child can even be aware of it. (2000 2004) In 1998, there were 772 private-sector schools in England, and 100000 children attend boarding schools in Britain. Most companies fall of the preferred option schools for the education of their children, except in the former British colonies in India, Nigeria and other former African colonies of the United Kingdom, for instance, schools are one of the favorite forms of education. In England, they are a major factor in the class. In some countries, such as New Zealand, a number of state schools have boarding schools. However, these public schools are often the traditional single-sex state schools whose ethos' are similar to their counterparts independent. Also, the number of boarders at these schools are much lower than for independent schools, usually around 10%. The Swiss government is developing a strategy to promote the private boarding schools for foreign students as an integral part of an enterprise economy of the country. Show your boarding schools offer instruction in several major languages and have a large number of quality service organized by the Swiss Association of Private Schools. India has a number of residential schools across the country that follow National & International curricula. Most of them are single units, except perhaps the Delhi Public School, the company has 125 branches in the whole world. They have a number of schools resiential at locations like Pinjore In the late 1800s, the United States government committed to a policy of education of Native American youth in the ways of Western culture dominant, so that Native Americans could then in the western Society assimilate. At these schools, managed and regulated by the government, Native American students were a number of tactics to secure them for life outside their homes book. In accordance with the assimilation methods in the schools, the education that Native American children receive in these institutions dominant society centered on the construction of gender norms and ideals. For boys and girls separately in almost activity and their interactions were strictly regulated along the lines of Victorian ideals. In addition, the order that the children will reflect the roles and functions they once were assumed outside the reservation. So were girls skills that could be adduced that in the home as "sewing, cooking, canning, ironing, cleaning and child care" (Adams 150). Native American boys in the boarding schools were taught the importance of an agricultural lifestyle with an emphasis on animal husbandry and agricultural skills such as ploughing and plants, the irrigation area, the maintenance of the stocks, and the care of fruit trees "(Adams 149). These ideas were Domesticity in stark contrast to the existing communities in native and indigenous reservations so many matrilineal societies were based on a system where the women's line was honored place and the women in society are respected. For example, women in indigenous communities held powerful functions in their own communities companies tasks that the Western society than for men than women could indigenous group leaders, healers, agriculture and farmers. While the Native American children were exposed and probably took some of the ideals that by the operation of this White schools, many resisted and rejected that gender norms, and they sat in the traditional systems of being, thwarting the process of assimilation . The women were in the middle of this resistance. Such a school for Native Americans, was famous for its size, was the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. It is claimed that the children may attend schools to give more opportunities than their family can provide. In the United States, for example, families who are interested in their children, in an ecologically sustainable community college prep boarding schools rather like Scattergood Friends School, where live sustainably is a way of life. However requires that substantial parts of spending an early life, what can we as the sum of institutions and social detachment may experience how social psychologist Erving Goffman (Goffman, Erving 1961). This may mean long-term separation from parents and culture, to the experience of homesickness (1999 1986), and can lead to a phenomenon known as "TCK" or third child culture (DC Pollock and Van Reken R 2001). Some modern philosophy of education, as constructivism, and new methods of music education for children Orff-Schulwerk, including the Suzuki method, the daily interaction of the child and parents is an integral component of education and training. The European Union-Canada Project Child Welfare Across Borders ", a major international venture for the development of the child, believes schools as a form of permanent displacement of the child. This view reflects a new perspective in the direction of education and child growth in the wake of more scientific understanding of the human brain and cognitive development. Specific figures were not yet tabulated on the statistical data for the ratio of boys to boarding schools, the total number of girls, the number of children in a given population in schools by country, the average age of the population, if the children are sent to boarding schools , and the average duration of the training (in years) for school students. Although schools may be true, as instilling social and personal skills and survival to keep children occupied, it includes children from normal home-based, home life, and are liable to create a sense of superiority and exclusivity and students. People who have such schools often speak with different accents as local children learned to play several sports, and miss out on local activities. Boarding schools and their environment settings and situations have almost a genre, in the (mostly) British literature, with its own conventions identifiable. (Typically, occasionally there are protagonists who break school rules for ladies and gentlemen, for reasons that the readers can identify with, and maybe get severely punished if caught - but not usually to a total of rebellion against the school as System.)
An airline provides air transport services for passengers or goods, usually with a recognised certificate or operating licence. Airlines or leasing of aircraft with their own, and for the provision of these services and can form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for mutual benefit. Airlines vary from those with a single cargo plane carrying mail or through full service international airlines that operate many hundreds of planes. Airline services can be classified as being intercontinental, or national intracontinental and can be managed as services or charter. Tony Jannus led the United States' first commercial flight scheduled for 1 January 1914 through the streets of St. Petersburg-which, through time and mergers, evolve into Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a Division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, Air Lines and Eastern Europe, to name a few. At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create a network of air that would link America to the world, and has achieved this objective with its airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston in London. Pan Am was the only airline of the United States to go international before 1940. KLM, the oldest carrier still operating under its original name, was founded in 1919. The first flight (managed on behalf of KLM by Aircraft Transport and Travel) English two passengers at Schiphol, Amsterdam, from London in 1920. Like other major European airlines time (see France and the United Kingdom below), KLM early growth depended heavily on the service needs of links with distant colonial possessions (Dutch East India). It is only after the loss of Empire Dutch KLM, which was based at a small country with some potential passengers, depending heavily on the transfer of traffic, and was one of the first to introduce the hub-easy system to facilitate connections. The France began the e-mail service of air in Morocco in 1919, which was purchased in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale failed, it was nationalized and merged with several other airlines in what became Air France. In Finland, paper establishing Aero S / Y (now Finnair, one of the oldest still-airlines operating in the world) was signed in the city of Helsinki on 12 September 1923. Junkers 13 D F-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when he received the delivery of Aero is March 14, 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, which took place on 20 March 1924, one week later. Lufthansa in Germany began in 1926. Lufthansa, unlike most other airlines at the moment, has become one of the main investors in airlines outside of Europe, which provides capital and Varig Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers Dornier and Fokker were the most advanced in the world at that time. The peak air traffic German came in the mid 1930, when the Nazi propaganda ministers approved the launch of commercial service zeppelin: the great airships were a symbol of industrial might, but the fact that they used hydrogen gas flammable raised safety concerns that culminated with the Hindenburg disaster of 1937. The reason, instead of using hydrogen non-flammable helium gas in the United States was a military embargo on helium. The British company Aircraft Transport and Travel started to London to Paris, the 25th August 1919, this was the first regular flight to the international world. The United Kingdom is the flag carrier during this period was Imperial Airways, which became BOAC (British Overseas Airlines Co.) in 1939. Imperial Airways used huge Handley-Page biplanes for routes between London, the Middle East and India: Images of Imperial aircraft in the middle of the Rub'al Dalip Singh, to be maintained by Bedouins, are among the most famous images of the bloom of the British Empire. The first country in Asia to embrace air travel has been Philippines. Philippine Airlines was founded on 26 February 1941, making it the oldest Asia carrier still operating under its current name. The airline was launched by a group of entrepreneurs led by Andres Soriano, hailed as one of the Philippines' leading industrial at the moment. The airline's first flight was made on March 15, 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which began its daily service between Manila (Nielson Field) in Baguio, after expanding with larger aircraft, as The DC - 3 and Vickers Viscount. In particular Philippine Airlines Japan Airlines leased their first aircraft, a DC-3 named "Kinsei. On 31 July 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines DC-4 ferried 40 American soldiers in Oakland, California by Nielson Airport in Makati City, with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll in Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first airline Asian to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco, was launched in December. It was during this year that the airline has been designated as the flag carrier Philippines. Another airline to begin operations was anticipated Air India, which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd (now Tata Group) from India JRD Tata industrial leaders. On October 15, 1932, JRD Tata himself flew a single engine De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (mail Imperial Airways), from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Vincent Nevill. After the end of World War II, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines has become a public limited company on July 29, 1946 under the name of Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Indian government. In return, the airline was granted the status to operate international services from India, as the flag carrier designated by the name of Air India International. Soon even neighbouring countries embraced aviation, in particular Cathay Pacific, founded in 1946, Malaysian Airlines and Singapore Airlines in 1947 (as Malay Airways), in 1949 Garuda Indonesia, Japan Airlines, founded in 1951. With the outbreak of the Second World War, the airline's presence in Asia of a relative came to an end, with many new flag air carriers to give their military aid and for other uses. World War II, like World War I, has brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in countries were allies wire leasing contracts for the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport for passengers and freight. They were interested in investing in emerging-bearer of air travel as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft are based American bombers like the B-29, who had led the search for new technologies such as pressurization. Most deals can be added greater efficiency and greater speed payload. The next big boost for airlines would come in the years 1970, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody ( "jumbo jet"), service, which is still the norm in international travel . The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde made supersonic travel a reality. In 1972, he began the production of Airbus in Europe most successful commercial airliners line today. The added efficiency for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload and range. As the economic cycle back to normal, major airlines dominated their paths through aggressive pricing and additional supply capacity, often swamping new start-ups. Only America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) has been a significant survivor of this new competitor was, as dozens, hundreds, went under. In many ways, the biggest winner was in a liberalized air transport. Indeed, the United States witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air transport, as many millions of people who had never or rarely flew first became regular flyers, the membership loyalty frequent flyer programmes and receiving free flights and other exploit their flying. New services and higher frequencies business flyers meant that could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, almost anywhere in the country. Air Travel's advantages intercity bus lines put under pressure, and most have less away. Thus the last 50 years of aviation have varied from reasonably profitable, a devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, airlines in the United States have experienced more turbulence almost any other country or region. Today, almost every single legacy carrier with the exception of American Airlines have operated under Chapter 11 bankruptcy provisions or have left the business. Many countries have national airlines that the government owns and manages. Entirely private airlines are subject to a big government to regulate economic, political, and concerns for safety. For example, the government often intervenes to stop the actions of the airlines working to protect the free movement of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety. The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent, Brazil, Mexico, United Kingdom and Japan have "liberalized" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, transport networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating modes with different airports, routes into and out easily, and the collection of air fares and flights of supply according to market demand. The new entry barriers for airlines are lowest in a liberalised market, and so the United States has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes only for a short period of operation). This has produced far more competition than before deregulation, in most markets, and the average rates tend to drop the 20% or more. Adding competition, together with freedom of prices, it means that new entrants often take market share with very low rates, to a limited degree, full service airlines have to match. This is an important constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base. Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization all over the world to establish standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, designating specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model for such an agreement was the Bermuda agreement between the United States and the United Kingdom after the Second World War, which has designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the power to appoint carriers to operate routes. Bilateral agreements are based on "freedom of the sky", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from freedom of overflight of a country the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (very rarely granted the right known as cabotage). Most of the agreements allow airlines to fly from their country of origin designated airports in other countries: Some also extend the freedom to continue to provide the service in a third country or destination in another country, while carrying passengers from overseas. In 1990, "open skies" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open international routes further competition. Open skies agreements have encountered some criticism, in particular within the European Union, of which the airlines would be at a disadvantage compared with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions. One theory is that the positive externalities, such as higher growth worldwide due to mobility, outweigh the microeconomic and justify the continuing loss of government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the aviation sector can be seen as part of a broader political consensus on strategic forms of transportation, such as highways and railways, both to receive public funding that, in most countries of the world. Profitability is likely to improve in the future, such as privatization continues and more competitive with low cost carriers proliferate. Because of complications and flight planning and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by knowledgeable traveler. Many of these secret flights are becoming increasingly known to the general public, so the airlines are forced to make constant adjustments. Most airlines use differential pricing, a form of price discrimination, in order to sell air transport services at prices variables simultaneously at different segments. Factors affecting the price includes the remaining days until departure, the book load factor, the forecast of total demand from the price, competitively priced into force, and variations of weekday departure and by time of day . Carriers often this dividend every cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy), in a number of classes of travel for prices. A complicating factor, which is origin-destination ( "O & D control). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for $ 200 (AUD) is in competition with someone else who wants to fly to Los Angeles Melbourne through Sydney on the same flight, and that it is willing to pay $ 1400 (AUD ). The airline would prefer the '$ 1400 200-1300? Airlines must make hundreds of thousands of such decisions daily price. The advent of advanced computer systems reserves at the end of 1970, particularly Sabre, allowed the airlines to easily make cost-benefit analyses on different tariff structures, bringing to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be loaded without driving consumers elsewhere). Discrimination price is considered an anti-business practice, and is defined as price discrimination definition: different prices for identical products. Technically this is the total specific actions of other airlines, without violating the law. The archaic airlines with hub-systems and tariff structures unprofitable, have legally defined this term as an attack on business, although this is not act outside the law. The low cost carriers (LCC) are new on the scene, and had no contacts or resources to prohibit this purely legal definition of a commercial practice (in which they have chosen to participate) as a practical monopoly to those with such archaic price structure. The national carriers have yet to define how a intenionally discrimination is harmful and injurious volitionally act on their business from a competitor. Read to the corporate security can be applied, or those who have the greatest impact can suggest without proof that they are treated unfairly, and can then use their legal status, as agreed to limit the LCC's manuevaribility into the market. An example is the fact that the demand imposed by the United States government for specific airports, which receive national or exemption for a subsidy), the seniority / grandfathering treatment, or b) the legal status of financially on the eve (ie pre-bankruptcy). The nature of intense airfare prices led to the term "rate war" to describe efforts by airlines less than other airlines on competitive routes. Through the computer, the new airfares can be published in a rapid and efficient for the airlines' sales channels. To do so, airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), which later tariffs to distribute more than 500 airlines Computer Reservation Systems throughout the world. Full-service airlines have a high level of fixed costs and operational, in order to establish and maintain air transport services: the work, fuel, aircraft, engines and spare parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment , airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus, all but a small percentage of ticket sales income is transferred from a wide range of suppliers external or internal cost centers. Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed, however, because of a series of treaties between countries. The ticket price includes a number of fees, taxes and surcharges that have little or no control, and these are passed through various suppliers. The airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, are responsible for their return to their country of origin. In contrast, Southwest Airlines has been the most profitable airlines by 1970. Indeed, some sources have calculated Southwest to be the best performing stock over the period, outselling Microsoft and many other high-performance companies. The main reasons for this are their product consistency and cost control. The widespread entry of a new breed of low-cost airlines that start at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these companies to emulate low-cost Southwest Airlines in various aspects, and how Southwest, which are able to eke a substantial profit in all phases of the economic cycle. As a result, one of the airlines shakeout is happening in the United States and elsewhere. United Airlines, US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines and Northwest Airlines have declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy, and American has just avoided it. Alitalia, Scandinavian Airlines System, Sabena, Swissair, Japan Air System, Viasa, Air Canada, Ansett Australia, and others have flirted with or declared bankruptcy since 1995, as low-cost competitors to enter their markets, but also at home. Some argue that it would be much better for the industry as a whole, where a wave of closures were actually reduce the number of "" compete with airlines airlines healthy despite being artificially protected from creditors by bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short-lived, given that there is relatively large amount of new aircraft that would get rid of failures and replace the market rise as fleets Survivors or base Air low cost for new start-ups. Airline funding is quite complicated, since airlines are highly leveraged transactions. Not only must purchase (or lease) new airliner engines and bodies regularly, they must take more long-term fleet decisions with the aim of satisfying the demands of their markets, while the production of a fleet that is relatively cheap to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their dependence on a single type of aircraft (the Boeing 737 and derivatives) with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines, which operates 17 different types of aircraft, each with different drivers, engines, maintenance, and needs assistance. A second problem is that financial hedging purchases of oil and fuel, which are usually second only to the work and its cost to society. However, the current high price of fuel has become the biggest cost of an airline. While hedging instruments can be expensive, which can easily pay for themselves many times during periods of increased costs of fuel, for example, in the period 2000-2005. In view of the congestion evident in many international airports, ownership of some slots at airports (the right to takeoff an aircraft or land at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant assets for many airlines. Clearly takeoff slots at popular times of day can be critical to attract business travellers more profitable to a particular airline flight and the creation of a competitive advantage over a competing airlines. If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those where competition is weaker, less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available, and therefore cheaper. Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and connections to involve the use of several airports and some long-haul flights may have to operate from the one with the longest runway. Code sharing is the most common type of airline partnership, this being an airline to sell tickets for flights of the airline another under its own airline code. A prime example of this was Japan Airlines' code-sharing partnership with Aeroflot in 1960 on flights from Tokyo to Moscow: Aeroflot managed using Aeroflot flights, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, in parts of the world where they can not afford to establish the foundations for purchase or aircraft. Another example was the Austrian-Sabena partnership on the Vienna-Brussels-New York JFK route during the late 60's, using a Boeing 707 with Sabena colors Austrians. Since reservation requests airlines are often made by city pair (such as "show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf"), an airline that is able to code share with another company for a variety paths may be able to be listed as an offering One Düsseldorf-Chicago flight. Passengers are advised, however, which manages the airline 1 flight from Chicago to Amsterdam, and 2 Planes continued work of flight (on another plane, sometimes from another terminal) in Düsseldorf. Thus, the primary rationale for the sharing of the code is to expand its service offerings in terms of city pair, in order to increase sales. Often companies combine IT operations, purchase fuel, aircraft or purchase in bulk to achieve higher power. However, the alliances have been most successful in the purchase of supplies and services invisible, as a fuel. Airlines usually prefer to buy objects visible to their passengers to differentiate their local competitors. If an airline main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, the airline may therefore prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses. Each operator of a charter flight or scheduled airline uses a call when communicating with airports centres or air traffic control. Most of these are signs of call-derived from the airline trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots are not mistakenly navigation decisions based on given instructions to another aircraft), some airlines use Air Force call signs less obviously connected with their trade name. For example, British Airways uses a call-sign Speedbird, named after the logo of its predecessor, while America West BOAC used Cactus society that reflect home state of Arizona and differs from many other airlines that use the ' America and the West in their call signs. The industry is cyclical. Four or five years of poor performance before five or six years to improve performance. , But in good years profitability is generally low in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, companies leasing of new generations of aircraft and upgrade services in response to increased demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worsened.
